The previous volume presented an overview of the distinct method of thinking in Islam and contrasted this with how Muslims study Islam today. In addition, the first section covered some of the features which characterize the thinking of the Muslim Ummah today as a result of the means and methods by which the Ummah currently understands and adopts Islam, as well as discussed the impact of neglecting the Islamic method of thinking. This section will examine the historical factors which resulted in the current thinking that exists among Muslims today, as well as to highlight some distinguishing features which characterize the Islamic way of thinking.

Factors Resulting in the Divergence from the Islamic Way of Thinking

Both decline and revival are products of the intellectual momentum which people initiate. The revival is expected to occur if such an effort or momentum is built upon a comprehensive thought and the people proceeded accordingly. On the contrary, the decline is expected to prevail if this comprehensive thought is absent and the people fail to consider any such thought as their frame of reference.
 

Therefore, any discussion or research related to the factors resulting in the current decline the Ummah is facing must address this issue. By surveying the intellectual history of the Muslim Ummah, one discovers that Muslims during the first three generations maintained Islam as the sole frame of reference. They adopted Islam the way the Prophet (saaw) instructed them to ­ by scrutinizing the reality through a deep and comprehensive thinking process. The Islamic Aqeedah, built through this intellectual process, became a reference for the thinking of Muslims. This Aqeedah would serve as the foundation upon which the Sahabah would build their understanding of the Islamic rules and systems to govern their lives with.


Muslims were particularly concerned about this process, and the Prophet (saaw) kept a vigilant eye in correcting any diversion in this approach. He would immediately correct the Sahabah and censor any misunderstanding that arose, regardless of its magnitude. For example, when the Prophet (saaw) told the Sahabah that the people of Jannah were created for the Jannah, and the people of Jahannam were created for Jahannam, the Sahabah asked him, ''Then why would we work?'' He (saaw) told them, ''You should work, and each one will proceed towards what he was created for.'' In this incident, the Prophet (saaw) detected a problem in their thinking when the Sahabah sought to connect their actions in a negative fashion with the Ghaib(unseen), in this case what they perceived as the being the Knowledge of Allah (swt). The Prophet (saaw) immediately corrected this misunderstanding by explaining to them that the Muslim should connect his actions with what he can comprehend and perceive, which is the Hukm Sharii, rather than with what he cannot fathom or comprehend, which is the Ghaib(unseen).


In another incident, an eclipse occurred after the death of Ibrahim, the son of the Prophet (saaw). Some people began to mistakenly connect the occurrence of the eclipse to this incident. The Prophet (saaw) immediately corrected their understanding by explaining to the people that they should not connect any natural phenomenon with the process of life and death because there is no relationship between the two. He told the Sahabah, ''Both the sun and the moon are signs of Allah, and they do not have their eclipse due to the birth or death of any individual.''


This correction process did not just happen during the time of the Prophet (saaw) but also continued during the Era of the Sahabah. It was reported that Abu Bakr corrected the people when they incorrectly understood the following ayah:

''O You who believe. Guard your own selves. If you follow guidance, no harm can come to you from those who go astray. The return of all of you is to Allah.'' [ 5:105]


Some people misunderstood this ayah to claim that a Muslim should care only for himself and not have any concern for others. Abu Bakr explained to them that the ayah is not an indication to stop enjoining the good and forbidding the evil (Amr bil-Ma'ruf wa nahy anil-Munkar). Instead, the ayah is ordering the Muslims not to follow such persons who commit mistakes. The ayah further mentions that the mistakes committed by such individuals will not harm the Muslims unless they follow them and commit the same mistakes. Abu Bakr, after explaining the ayah's correct meaning, also quoted a hadith in which the Prophet (saaw) said:

''You will continue performing Amr bil Ma'ruf wa nahy anil Munkar, and you will continue to hold the oppressor accountable and force him to cease his oppression. Otherwise, Allah will send a punishment, and you will make Du'a to Allah but your Du'a will not be answered.''


In another incident, Umar ibn al Khattab was reciting the ayah:

''and fruits and abba.'' [ 80:31]


A sahabi asked him, ''What is this 'abba'?'' Umar noticed that he was asking about something related to the Ghaib(unseen) and instructed him not to do so and to be content with the ayah's general meaning of describing the bounties of the Jannah. Also, Umar realized that the general meaning of the text is clear and can be understood without understanding the meaning of the word ''abba.''


Another example which illustrates this corrective process occurred when the Muslims faced the Romans in the Battle of Yarmuk. A Muslim who was overwhelmed by the numbers of the Roman Army stated, ''Arabs are too little and Romans are too many. How great the Romans are and how little the Arabs are.'' Khalid ibn al-Walid replied, ''You should say, 'How great Muslims are and how little the Romans are, since the soldiers will be great by the victory and will be little by the defeat.'' In this incident, Khalid corrected the entire criteria of the balance of power between armies, and explained to that individual that the measure of an army's greatness should be based on its victories and not on its size.


These examples illustrate that the Prophet (saaw) as well as the Sahabah after him were very concerned about the thinking process. They would correct the misunderstanding of a certain concept in addition to addressing the way of thinking of anyone whom they noticed needed correction. Therefore, Muslims always strove to eliminate any alien idea from Islam in order to preserve the correct understanding of Islam and eliminate the possibility of any divergence emerging. Muslims paid careful attention towards maintaining their point of view towards the life in addition to preserving their understanding of the Aqeedah, the Islamic thoughts and rules, and the mechanism through which they understood Islam.


However, by the third generation, patterns of divergence began to appear in the thinking of some Muslims when they incorporated some alien ideas into their thinking. Consequently, the understanding of Islam among Muslims gradually deteriorated. Even though Muslims are expected to maintain a high level of understanding, they failed to do so as a result of an accumulation of several factors. The three most significant factors which contributed to the decline of the thinking among Muslims were: Greek Philosophy, the Oriental or Eastern Philosophies, and the recent Western intellectual invasion.

Greek Philosophy

Greek philosophy can be considered a specific outlook toward life since it has an Aqeedah as well as certain key fundamental thoughts, all of which produce a unique way of thinking based upon logic. This philosophy was exposed to Muslims through two channels: The Christians living under the Islamic State, and the Translation movement. The Christians who were ruled by Muslims were already equipped with the Greek philosophy because Christianity became devoid of any rational thoughts and concepts and, therefore, could not be considered as an intellectual basis for building any substantial thoughts upon. Due to this deficiency, the Christians began to look towards Greek philosophy and logic in order to strengthen their system of thoughts. Unfortunately, some Muslims were influenced by the Greek thoughts as well, and they began studying Greek philosophy, thinking that doing so would enable them to intellectually face the Christians with the same tools. They failed to realize that delving into Greek philosophy would lead them to be influenced by it. The Muslims did not understand that any way of thinking is defined by a unique Aqeedah, which will result in the person adopting any way of thinking to ultimately be influence by the Aqeedah which shaped such a way of thinking.


An example illustrating how the Muslims relied upon Greek philosophy to substantiate their arguments was when the Christians claimed that Christ in the Word of Allah that was given to Mariam. According to their argument, since the word is one of Allah's Attributes, it is eternal because any descriptive adjective is connected to the object it is describing. And because the object in this instance is Allah, Who is eternal, then any attribute related to Allah is also eternal. The conclusion that the Christians derived as a result of this logic is that Christ is eternal and not created. To support their claim, they quoted the following from the Bible: ''In the beginning, there was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.''


Some Muslims, such as the Mu'tazilah, thought that the best method to counter the Christian argument was to claim that the Qur'an was created. According to them, saying that the Qur'an, which is Allah's Word, is created would lead to the conclusion that Christ is also created on the basis that Christ is also Allah's Word. As a result, the entire concept of discussing the Attributes of Allah influenced by this approach. The Mu'tazilah claimed that no difference exists between Allah's Attributes and His Essence, and that both are one and the same. They propagated the notion that the descriptions of Allah's Essence are not separated from His Essence. According to them, if the Attributes of Allah, which are eternal, are separated from His Essence, this would result in the existence of several eternal things, which would justify the existence of the Trinity.


To counter this claim, others such as Ahlul-Sunnah viewed such a stance as denial of Allah's Attributes. Ahlul-Sunnah claimed that while Allah has eternal attributes, they are neither a part of Allah nor separated from His Essence. According to them, Allah's Attributes are not a part of Him because the descriptions are never an integral part of the object being described. And they are eternal because no description which carries a limited meaning can be attributed to Allah's Essence. Based on this logic, Ahlul-Sunnah concluded that the Attributes of Allah are eternal and are manifested by Allah's Essence, but they are neither Him nor something other than Him because the descriptions are not the essence which is described. Furthermore, the Attributes are not something other than Allah because they are attributed to Allah. Muslims were eventually caught in this endless spiral of sophistic argument which eventually led to conclusions that had no realistic or rational basis. The issue could have been settled from the beginning if the Muslims realized that the issue of Allah's Attributes is part of the Ghaib(unseen) and is beyond the scope of rational discussion. Furthermore, the Muslims should have acknowledged that the laws which apply to the human being cannot apply to Allah. Eventually, such an intellectual squabble led to an entire Fitnah when the State attempted to impose the opinion of the Mu'tazilah upon the Muslims by force.


What caused the Muslims to entangle themselves in these sophistic discussions was adopting the logical method of thinking in the Aqeedah. The Muslims should have built the Aqeedah through the rational thinking in order to reach the conclusion that Allah exists and that the Qur'an is from Allah, and this basis would lead the Muslims to believe conclusively that whatever Allah revealed to Muhammad (saaw) is wahi. Once this Aqeedah is established, then the wahi itself, and not the rational thinking, would serve to establish the existence of the angels, the Attributes of Allah, and other aspects of the Ghaib(unseen). Thus, the Muslims should have adopted their opinions regarding issues of the Ghaib(unseen) only through the textual, and not the rational, evidence. Muslims could have avoided this pitfall by adopting the stance that the statement ''Christ is the Word of Allah'' does not mean that Christ is one of Allah's Attributes


Muslims also adopted the Greek philosophy through the translation movement, which began during the Umayyads but became more systematic and institutionalized during the Abbasid Era. Al-Ma'mun, who was influenced by the Mu'tazilah, encouraged the translation of Greek literature, and Greek philosophy was one significant source of material that the Muslims translated. As a result, many Muslims began studying this philosophy, and they were influenced by it to varying degrees. Some of them only adopted the Greek Philosophy as a method of thinking without adopting its Aqeedah, such as the Mu'tazilah and the Mutakallimeen. Others adopted the Greek thought basis itself, which included concepts such as God's incarnation, Immanetism, and Pantheism, and were the so-called ''Muslim Philosophers'' such as Ibn Sina, Farabi, and others.


Although the Mutakallimeen maintained their belief in Islam, for them the Islamic doctrine ceased to function as a rational doctrine which instructed the human being to first think using the rational method and then to use the revelation as a basis for establishing the existence of realities beyond the human mind or senses. Rather, Islam was reduced to an abstract philosophy addressing issues that were beyond the human perception in a logical and abstract manner. As a result, they introduced some philosophical issues to the Muslims such as whether or not the Qur'an is created, who created man's actions, and whether Allah's Attributes are separated from His Essence. As for the Muslim Philosophers, they did not leave a substantial impact upon the mainstream, but some Sufi movements remain influenced by their thoughts even until today.

The Correct Response

Allah (swt) says:

''Verily, His Command, when He intends a thing, is only that He says to that thing, 'Be,' and it is.'' [36:82]


Thus, Isa was born in this miraculous way; in addition, the ayah indicates that he was created by Allah. We cannot draw an analogy between the Speech of Allah (whether it was sent to Muhammad through the Qur'an or addressed to Musa directly) and Isa, who was created after Allah ordered him to be created. The Speech of Allah and the nature of Isa are two different issues. Furthermore, when the Qur'an describes Isa as the Word of Allah, the meaning of the text is that Isa is just the result of the Word of Allah, which was given to Mariam. And the world of Allah is ''Be'' mentioned in the ayah, which resulted in the creation of Isa.


The Greek Philosophy was a setback for Muslims which greatly impacted their understanding of Islam. What added complexity to the problem was when some Khulafah adopted the opinions of the Mu'tazilah and attempted to impose it by force. All of this led to the emergence of many groups, such as Al-Mu'tazilah, Juhamiyah, Hashawiya, and others, in addition to many philosophical movements such as Ikhwan us-Safah, which eventually produced sects such as the Druze. The emergence of such philosophical sects damaged the intellectual cohesiveness and unity of the Muslims and greatly affected their Islamic way of thinking. Muslims would begin to employ the logical method of thinking in areas beyond its scope, such as in the realm of Aqeedah or political thinking. In addition, the influence of such movements introduced to the Muslims the notions of metaphorical and even twisted means of thinking.

Eastern Philosophies


Two of the most significant Eastern philosophies that influenced Muslims were the Indian and the Persian philosophies. Many Persians and Hindus became Muslims, but they attempted to reconcile between their old thoughts and the new Islamic thoughts they adopted. Eventually, many of their philosophies and literature was translated into Arabic, and as a result, many of their concepts, such as Brahmanism, Dualism, and the ideas of Mazdak, spread among Muslims. Heretics (Zanadiqah) emerged for the first time in Muslim history, some propagating the Communistic teachings of Mazduk, while others promoting Brahmanism, which is rooted in the notion of torturing the body in order to elevate the spiritual aspect. In addition to individuals, entire sects whose foundation and structure exceeded the boundaries of Islam emerged, among them the Karamitah and Hashashin (Assassins).


Mazduk was a Zoroastrian high priest in 5th century Persia who was also well-known as a Zoroastrian philosopher.

Brahmanism claims that man is composed of two antagonistic elements: The material and spiritual components. Because they are antagonistic, one would have to deprive himself materially in order to elevate himself spiritually, until reaching a state of spiritual perfection which its adherents termed the state of ''Nirvana.''

The rapid spread of Sufism among Muslims was one of the most evident products of the Eastern philosophies. Sufism began as a call for Muslims to detach themselves from the worldly issues, such as financial and political affairs and material enjoyments, and to focus solely on the Hereafter. However, Sufism later incorporated many alien ideas such as Brahmanism, Incarnation, and Dualism. Since then, Sufism evolved from a call to detach the people from the life affairs into a comprehensive philosophy with its own ideas, symbols, way of thinking, order, literature, and poetry. The Sufi thought became distinguished in its usage of distinct symbols and styles of communication that no one except the Sufis themselves could comprehend. For example, the Sufis claimed that each ayah or hadith has two meanings: One that is understood by common people (the apparent meaning), and the Batini (hidden) meaning, which only they can understand. They justified this stance on the basis that everything became unveiled to them as a result of certain practices and acts of devotion which they conducted. Below are some examples of some ayahs along with the Batini meanings which the Sufis attributed to them:

Allah (saws) says,

''He has let loose the two seas which meet together; between them is a barrier which none of them can transgress.'' [ 55:19-20]

Ibn Arabi, a prominent Sufi, stated regarding this ayah: ''The two seas (the saltwater and freshwater seas) refer respectively to the physical body and the spirit, and they meet in the human existence. The barrier alludes to the animalistic aspect of the human soul which prevents either of the two components (the physical body and the spirit) from overcoming the other.''

 Allah (saws) says,

''The first house erected for the people is that one in Mecca.'' [ 3:96]

According to Sufi understanding, the apparent meaning of the house is the Ka'abah, whereas the hidden meaning is the Prophet (saaw).
 

Allah (saws) says,


''Worship Allah and join none with Him and do good to parents, kinfolk, orphans, the poor, the relative neighbor and the neighbor, the companion by your side and the wayfarer.'' [ 4:36]


Al-Tusturi says that the known meaning is the apparent meaning, however the hidden meaning is different. The ''relative neighbor'' is the heart, the ''neighbor'' refers to nature, and the ''wayfarer'' refers to the bodily organs that obey Allah.

Allah (saws) says,

'' Oh people! Fear your Lord, the One Who created you from one single soul.'' [ 4:1]


Ibn Arabi says to make whatever appears from you a protection for your Lord and make your Lord, which is your inside part, a protection for you.

The individuals who deduced the tafseers for the ayahs did not follow any defined rule or methodology and depended solely upon whim and illusion. The Theory of Incarnation is apparent in Ibn Arabi's statements when he considered that Allah is the hidden component of the human being.


Furthermore, the Sufis became attached to their shaykhs and imams, each following behaving according to a specific order, such as the Naqshabandi Order. Also worthwhile mentioning is that most of the Sufis were originally of Non-Arab descent, particularly from the Persian and Turkic regions. This turnout was a natural result of the close proximity of these regions to the centers of Persian and Indian philosophy. This geographical proximity eventually contributed to the emergence of the Bouwaihi and Safawi states in Persia and its surroundings, which helped isolate the Muslims in India and Asia from the Muslims in Iraq, Bilad as-Sham, Egypt, and other territories west of Persia. These two states served as a strong intellectual barrier which separated the two halves of the Islamic world from each other.

Sufism also exerted a tremendous control on Muslim thought in India and Central Asia. Sahrourdi and Ghazali aided in spreading these ideas due to their frequent travels to areas in the Muslims world. However, in the center of the Muslim world, which consisted of Bilad as-Sham, Iraq, Egypt, and Arabia, Sufis was resisted heavily by Muslims. Some scholars such as Ibn Taymiyya and Ibnul-Qayyem greatly assisted the opposition towards Sufism. And some extreme Sufis such as Ibnul-Arabi and Al-Hallaj were executed because of propagating their belief in the Incarnation. Furthermore, the Arabic language aided in obstructing the spread of Sufism in these territories. The situation remained relatively unchanged until some people such as the Moguls and Suljuk Turks emigrated from Central Asia to these regions. These people carried Sufi ideas to the Arabs, and by the 11th Century A.H., most of the Muslim World succumbed to the influence of Sufi thought.


Sufism stifled the thinking process in the Muslim Ummah by spreading passiveness, carelessness, ignorance, and superficial thinking among the Muslims. The Sufi philosophy changed the thinking of Muslims to one based on Fatalism which essentially ignores the cause-effect relationship that Allah (swt) established in the universe. Concepts such as depending upon others, laziness in thinking, and sanctification of certain personalities, in addition to the emergence of personal cults, are only a few of the negative impacts of Sufism, all of which ultimately resulted in the stagnation of Muslim thought. With the doors of ijtihad already closed, the presence of destructive alien thoughts spreading passiveness among Muslims, the educational centers and institutions restricted to memorizing old Fiqh books, and the rapid spread of bida'(innovative) practices such as visiting the graves of the imams in a ritualistic manner, the Muslims were an easy target for the third and final factor which led to their intellectual decline: The Western invasion.

The Western Intellectual Invasion

While Muslims were experiencing a state of intellectual decline, Europe began to emerge as a new intellectual power in the world. During this time, Europe experienced the Renaissance, which resulted in the emergence of Capitalism as a new ideology. The Capitalist ideology had as its foundation the Secular creed which defined the relationship between Church and State. Thinkers such as Hobbs and Rousseau began propagating the newly-emerging concepts of Democracy, Freedom, Individualism, and Liberty. Parallel to the intellectual development was the emergence of the scientific way of thinking, which Europe embraced. All of these intellectual developments ushered Europe into the Industrial Revolution. With the emergence of the Capitalist ideology and the Industrial Revolution, the West emerged as a new intellectual and material force in the world.

Muslims, content with their military superiority, were either unaware or heedless of the sweeping changes which were occurring throughout most of Europe. This contentment was further strengthened by their belief that Islam could not be conquered, the long history the Islamic State enjoyed as the First State in the world for a millennium, and their ability to defeat both the Crusaders and the Moguls. Further adding to this feeling of contentment was the fact that the Muslims were able to sweep across Europe, ultimately reaching Central France and Vienna.

Although the Ottoman State was a military giant, its political and intellectual influence was miniscule. Politically and intellectually, the Muslims were declining due to the accumulation of several internal factors, and this deterioration became more widespread and obvious during the days of the Ottoman State. The Muslims in this state of decline were ill-prepared in dealing with the sudden changes that swept through Europe, and consequently the progress that Europe experienced was a shock to the Muslims that took them by surprise. While the Muslims before continuously expanded their frontiers to new lands, the Muslims during the days of the Ottoman State witnessed the European Nations, particularly Spain, Portugal, Holland, Britain, and France, colonizing Muslim lands in different regions. In the past, the Europeans were forced to cross the Muslim world in order to trade with other nations and territories in remote areas such as China. However, with the discovery of new trade routes by Vasco De Gama, Magellan, Columbus, and others, Europe no longer depended solely upon the Muslims in this regard.

In light of such events, the Muslims began to realize their weakness and decline, but this realization was not initiated by any intellectual awareness of the situation. Instead, the Muslims reacted based on physical criteria to the material advancements in Europe and the conquering of Muslim lands. As a result, the Muslims were overwhelmed by the material advancement of Europe. Although the Muslims attempted to initiate a revival, the concept of revival in their minds was no longer an intellectual revival but was restricted to keeping pace with the progress occurring in the West. As a result of this reactionary stance towards the revival, Muslims became enchanted with the West for the first time in their history.

In their attempts to define and create the revival, the Muslims became divided into three major currents. The first current, the so-called ''Traditionalists'' or ''Conservatives,'' consisted of the common masses, the traditional shaykhs and scholars, and the Sufis. They took the stance of passiveness and carelessness and paid little or no attention to the events happening in Europe. Furthermore, they were unable to recognize the distinction between the material and the cultural aspects of a civilization. As a result, they viewed the Western civilization as Kufr in all aspects, which caused them to reject any product of the West as something from Shaytan, whether the product was intellectual, cultural, scientific or technological.

The second current which attempted to revive the Muslims was the Secular current which consisted of those who were fascinated and mesmerized by the European culture and civilization. The seeds of this current were planted with Napolean's invasion of Egypt. Some individuals started visiting Europe in order to study, and these individuals eventually began calling the Muslims to adopt the European culture and civilization in their totality. They called for such Western ideas as the detachment of the Deen from the state, the separation of Islam from life, and other Western-borne concepts such as Equality, Individualism, and Freedom. The Secular current would eventually give rise to the Turkish secular nationalists such as the Young Turks and the Union and Progress Party, as well as some westernized Arabs who would form the seeds of Arab nationalist movements.

The last current were represented by the ''Modernists'' who propagated the idea that the Western culture has both positive and negative qualities and that Muslims should adopt from Europe anything that does not conflict with their Deen. This current started calling Muslims to bridge the gap between Islam and the Western culture by reinterpreting Islam to adapt to the modern life defined by the West.

To the misfortune of the Muslims, all of these currents were wrong in their approach. The Traditionalist current chose the path of stagnation and was not prepared to think in any aspect. And the Secular and Modernist trends considered the West as the reference point, either consciously or subconsciously. They incorrectly defined the revival as being based on the relationship between the Muslims and the West, differing only in the extent to which Muslims should emulate the West. Furthermore, by considering the West as the frame of reference which defined their course of action, these currents, particularly the Secular and Modernist currents, made themselves easy targets for the European nations to use them as tools in their cultural and intellectual campaign against the Muslims. Both Britain and France started openly assisting the Seculars from among the Turks and Arabs. Egypt, which was occupied by Britain, became a safe haven for Seculars who were forced to leave the Ottoman-controlled territories. In addition, some Lebanese Christians emigrated to Egypt and established newspapers and journals advocating the Secular point of view. Britain and France assisted these individuals in spreading their publications to different regions of the Ottoman State. Lord Kromer, who resided in Egypt at the time as the British Viceroy, played a critical role in this process.

The Modernist current was also supported by Britain, but the support was done covertly and with the intention of establishing its roots firmly among the masses. This Modernist stream included members such as Refaah Tahtawi, Kahyrid-Deen Al-Tunusi, Jamaal ud-Deen Al-Afghani, Abdul-Rahman Al-Kawakiby, and Muhammad Abdu. A prominent aspect of this covert support was Lord Kromer's efforts in helping Muhammad Abdu reach the position of Shaykh al-Azhar, although he was not well appreciated by the scholars there.The works of Muhammad Abdu and Lord Kromer eventually resulted in the establishment of a new educational and judicial system in Egypt. Muhammad Abdu used the stagnation which gripped the Islamic world to justify his stance of modernizing Islam to mold into the Western-dominated status quo.

The British were keen in recruiting scholars in order to carry out their plans for the Muslim world. An example of Britain's close ties with such scholars is when the Khalifah requested Muhammad Abdu's presence in Istanbul. Muhammad Abdu, fearful for his security, traveled to Istanbul and resided as a guest of the British Consulate, which exerted considerable pressure upon the Khalifah to secure Abdu's safety.

In addition to the Secular and Modernist currents, Britain and France also lent support to the Conservative or Traditionalist current by advocating the Sufi trend and promoting the various Sufi orders. This support was clearly visible when the Sufis in Algeria fought alongside the French government against the Muslims. In addition, the new publishing houses established in Egypt began publishing many works of Sufi literature, such as the books of Ibnul-Arabi and Al-Ghazali.

A critical analysis of these currents will reveal that all of them were incorrect for two principle reasons:

1. These movements incorrectly defined the concept of revival and its approach. The Traditionalist movement defined the concept of revival based on stagnation and passiveness. And the Secular and Modernist currents defined the concept of revival from a purely materialistic vantage point. This outlook led them to restrict the concept of revival to dealing with the West and keeping pace with its progress, rather than dealing with themselves and identifying the factors which would create progress for the Muslims. What the Muslims should have done was to initiate a discussion about their situation, proceed to identify factors and causes that led to their decline, and then define the approach they should follow to revive themselves intellectually with the objective of restoring their creativity, productivity, and above all, the correct Islamic thinking. Unfortunately, no attempts of this nature happened.

2. Both the Traditionalist and Modernist currents failed to identify the difference between Hadhaara (the cultural aspects of a civilization) and Madaniyyah (the material aspects of a civilization). For this reason, Muslims were unable to identify what they can adopt and what they should reject from other civilizations. Because the Hadhaara consists of a set of concepts about life derived from a fundamental thought or creed, then the Muslims cannot adopt anything from the other civilizations related to the Hadhaara. Aspects related to a civilization or society's Hadhaara include its systems, the economic and political orders, the outlook towards humankind and society, and the prevailing arts and philosophies.On the other hand, the Madaniyyah consists of the material aspects of a civilization which is not influenced by a unique point of view, philosophy or creed, such as industry, mathematics, physics, engineering, and medicine. All of these material aspects are permissible because the Sharii Qa'ida states: ''The original rule for objects is permissibility, unless it is proven otherwise.''

In addition, Muslims failed to differentiate between the different types of knowledge and, as a result, could not identify what areas of knowledge they could adopt from the West and what areas of knowledge they could not. Because the scientific knowledge is acquired through the scientific methodology, which is universal and cannot be influenced by any doctrine or specific point of view, the Muslims are allowed to acquire scientific knowledge from any source. However, the Saqafah, or the knowledge that is influenced by a specific point of view towards life is particular to any culture and is acquired by narration and deduction. Such areas of knowledge include language, history, jurisprudence, and philosophy. Muslims must exercise care in studying any cultural knowledge such as sociology, psychology, and economics because they are influenced by the point of view of others.


Based on this distinction between the universal and the particular, the Muslims were supposed to adopt the science and technology from the West and develop it further while rejecting the Western culture and point of view. However, instead of adopting this strategy, the Muslims ironically attempted to transfer the thoughts and concepts unique to the Western culture while rejecting many technological and scientific advancements which the West achieved.

 The debate in this aspect has no relation to whether the item to be adopted (or rejected) complies with, or is similar to, Islam. Muslims are ordered to adopt, comply, and adhere only to the Sharii rules derived from a valid Islamic text. If a rule is not derived from a text, even though it may seem similar to Islam, it cannot be taken. The Muslims are prohibited from adopting any Kufr legislation, even if such a legislation does not conflict with Islam at some point.

 If the material aspect is influenced by the Hadhaara, then it cannot be taken. For example, a stone is part of the Madaniyyah, whereas a stone carved into a statue of a person would reflect the Hadhaara of Western culture, which allows the production of replicas of people in the arts. Furthermore, architecture is part of the Madaniyyah, but Islam prohibits the use of architecture to design a house which openly displays its interior to the outside world.

These attempts to revive the Muslims failed to address the true nature of revival. Instead, they compounded the problem of the Muslims by mixing the Islamic thought with the Western thought. Such a mixture led to more backwardness in science and technology. Further exasperating the decline was the intellectual invasion of the West, which systematically targeted specific issues in the Islamic way of thinking. Following are examples of specific issues in Islam which the West addressed and their impact upon Muslims:


The Islamic Political System

The manner in which the West addressed this issue perhaps inflicted the greatest damage upon the Muslim Ummah because it struck at the very mechanism which implements the Islamic system. During the Middle Ages, the Western nations suffered tremendously as a result of the theocratic systems imposed upon them. A severe backlash erupted as a result of the oppression that the West experienced, which caused some groups to deny religion altogether. In order to resolve this confrontation, the West formulated a compromise solution which separated the Deen from the life affairs, and this solution became the Secular basis of Western Capitalist societies. With the separation of Church and State and the subsequent adoption of Capitalism, Europe entered a phase of rapid progress. Thus, the notion that religion and politics cannot coexist and that mixing the two is synonymous with backwardness and decline became a cornerstone in Western political thought. The West exported this notion to the Muslims and brilliantly deceived the Muslims into thinking that the historical experiences which the West encountered was a universal one which applied to every religion or Deen, including Islam. As a result, the Muslims began to view Islamic politics in the same light as the West viewed politics mixed with the Deen as a lethal cocktail. And just as the West perceived their decline as the result of mixing religion with politics, the Muslims began to perceive their own decline as the direct result of implementing Islam in the life affairs.


Such a problem could have been easily alleviated if the Muslims realized that the experiences of the West were specific to the West and stemmed from certain factors, such as: The inability of the Christian doctrine to address the life affairs because of the original doctrine being mixed with man-made ideas and innovations; the fact that the whims and opinions of the clergy, and not even the Christian doctrine itself, was used as a basis for rule; and the incorrectness of the manner in which the Europeans attempted to resolve their intellectual dilemma, which produced an incorrect solution that inherently contradicted itself. None of these factors could be generalized to the Muslim World because the Islamic text is proven correct and was never polluted, which made Islam capable of addressing the life affairs at any time or place. And Islam, unlike the existing Christian doctrine in Europe at the time, is intellectually conclusive and directs the human being to build his Aqeedah based on the intellectual method. Furthermore, the Islamic Aqeedah is comprehensive in its nature, and from it emanates a comprehensive system of life. Therefore, there was never a conflict between the reality deduced from the intellect and the Islamic Aqeedah. And the Islamic System addresses all aspects of life, leaving no aspect of the life affairs unanswered. Because of these attributes that were unique to the Islamic Aqeedah, the Muslims never had a ''Dark Ages'' which the West experienced. The decline which the Muslims were undergoing was a result of misunderstanding Islam, which resulted from the accumulation of several factors, none of which had any relation to the factors contributing to the European Dark Ages. However, the West capitalized upon the decline of the Muslims and their intellectual confusion by misleading them to believe that the presence of Islam in the political arena was the central cause of their decline. As a result, the Muslims were diverted into perceiving their decline as well as the issue of revival using the West as a model, which caused them to call for the separation of Islam from the life affairs and abandoning the Islamic political system as necessary to revive the Muslims.


Today, the separation of Islam and politics has become deeply rooted among the Muslims in general and among Muslim politicians and intellectuals in particular. In addition, two recent factors compound the problem. First, the educational curricula laid down by the Western Colonialists which the Muslims were exposed to depicted the Islamic history under the Khilafah as a ruthless and barbaric era in which the Muslim world was engulfed in conflicts, instability, and endless killings immediately following the Era of the Sahabah. The Khulafaa were presented for the most part as bloodthirsty dictators preoccupied with lavishness and women. Such images were so successfully implanted in the minds of the Muslims that they began to view their history with shame, thinking that the Khilafah was something that spoiled the image of Islam. Added to the history books are the existence of some regimes in the Muslim world which claim themselves as Islamic, as well as the behavior of Muslim political parties and individuals who play the same dirty politics characteristic of Western politics. Such regimes, although they are nothing more than Secular regimes which apply fragments of Islam, nevertheless present a very negative portrayal of Islam. Because of the inability of most Muslims to distinguish between what constitutes an Islamic state and the existing states which claim themselves as Islamic, and their inability to differentiate between politics practiced based on Islam and ''Politics in the name of Islam,'' such regimes and individuals further shatter the confidence of Muslims in Islam's ability to address the life's affairs. As a result, many Muslims, out of despair and frustration, take the easy path and separate Islam from politics altogether.


The Status of Women


The issue of woman in Islam was clear and never debated among Muslims. Allah (swt) created men and women and legislated general responsibilities for both, such as carrying the Daw'ah and holding the rulers accountable, in addition to designating specific responsibilities for each gender. Muslims acknowledged that sovereignty belongs to Allah, and the rules related to both men and women are Islamic rules deduced through ijtihad based upon the daleel. It was implicitly recognized among Muslims that the process of ijtihad and the concept of daleel are not sex-dependent, and thus, a ''male'' or ''female'' understanding of Islam never emerged. The only understanding that Islam produced for any concept or rule was the legal understanding based upon the daleel. As a result, all Muslims, whether man or woman, adhered to the Islamic rules in their entirety, and the Muslims with this understanding were saved from the ''sex wars'' that continue to plague the West until today.

It was this understanding that the Muslims lacked in dealing with the onslaught from the West regarding the status of women in Islam. The ideological invasion initiated by the West raised issues related to the Islamic Social System, such as why the man is allowed to marry four women and why the woman must cover her entire body except the face and hands. Even more damaging was the very concept of the status of women in Islam which the West constructed and propagated ­ a slave in a male-dominated society. The proper response to all of this would be to realize that the outlook of the West towards women stem from a specific viewpoint. The Muslims could have easily addressed this issue by presenting Islam with its intellectual basis, forcing the West to question whether the human being or Allah was fit to decide what status would be conferred to both men and women. However, the Muslims made a critical mistake by attempting to justify the status of women in Islam to accommodate the Western outlook. Some Muslims reacted to the accusations initiated by the West began by calling for Western ideas such as woman's liberation and equality between the sexes, thinking that doing so would stave off some of the attacks. As a reaction to this group, another section of Muslims went to the opposite extreme and claimed that the woman should not leave her home and are prohibited from trade, education, and politics. A third group emerged in an attempt to reconcile between the two camps, which was no more than an attempt to reconcile between Western thoughts and Islamic emotions.

The end result of these attempts to address this issue was a total disaster. As a direct outcome of these movements, the Muslim Ummah was faced with three options regarding the status of women: To adopt the Western model, which was based on a reaction to an incorrect viewpoint; or to adopt what was labeled as the ''Islamic'' model, which was a reaction to a reaction; or to adopt the model which attempted to mix Islam with the Western outlook, which was a compromise between two reactions. Further compounding the problem was the fact that the Muslims began to lose the distinction between Islam and various local cultures and traditions which did in fact discriminate heavily upon women. Many aspects of these traditions and cultures were deemed Islamic, particularly on the issue of women. This intermixing of Islam with local culture succeeded in magnifying the image among Muslims and non-Muslims that Islam is oppressive to women.

In addition to these issues, many others were addressed, such as Jihad, the status of non-Muslims in Islam, and the Islamic penal code. In order to ensure the success of this process, new universities and schools were erected throughout the Muslim world, and scholarships were granted to Muslim students to study in the West. Furthermore, cultural and educational clubs were established, and even hospitals were utilized for the purpose of promoting Western ideas and culture among Muslims. All of these tools were used to spread Western ideas such as Nationalism, Secularism, and, above all, sanctification of the West in all of its aspects, from its history to noted Western personalities to its achievements in the arts and literature. These thoughts were initially accepted by some Christians in Lebanon and later spread among Muslims. When the West eventually colonized the region militarily, the Shariah was abandoned except in areas dealing with personal issues, and a new educational curriculum was imposed. The existence of this educational curriculum would guarantee that, after the military departure of the West from the Muslim lands, the future generations who would graduate from this curriculum would look up to the West as their ideal model in every facet of life.

Nowadays, the Western thought has become pervasive among Muslims. In fact, the Western culture became the dominant point of view among the intelligentsia and the educated class. Most of the publications, seminars, intellectual circles, and discussions, which exist in the Muslim World are influenced by this point of view. And the advent of new means of transmitting ideas such as telecommunications and internet further enhanced this influence.

The impact of the Western thought is the most dangerous factor which affected Muslims, far surpassing the impact of the Greek and Eastern philosophies. While these old philosophies may have diverted the thinking of the Muslims, the modern Western philosophy killed the Muslim thought altogether and worked to reshape the thinking of future generations of Muslims based on the Western culture. Today, the majority of Muslims have Islamic emotions, but are Westernized in their thoughts and ideas.

The Islamic way of thinking was not destroyed overnight but was slowly dismembered due to many factors which accumulated throughout history. Those factors started with the emergence of some intellectual factors after the Tabi'een(pious generation). Recently, many attempts were initiated to restore the Islamic way of thinking by returning the Muslims back to the lifestyle of the first three generations. But even these attempts failed because those who pioneered such attempts confined their efforts to Taqleed(imitation) in Fiqhi(jurisprudence) opinions produced by these early generations and continuous repetition of their opinions in issues related to the Aqeedah without any profound intellectual thinking. Furthermore, they did not differentiate between examining the first three generations, how they built and maintained their thinking, and how they faced the issues surrounding them as a role model to take lessons from, and actually copying the tools and technologies that existed at the time. As a result, the change that they called for was in fact a call for Muslims to return to the days of riding camels and not a call for the Muslims to emulate the early generations. Thus, even these movements were unable to solve the problem.

Characteristics of the Islamic Way of Thinking


With the emergence of the many problems that resulted from the absence of the Islamic way of thinking, some members of the Muslim Ummah attempted to define the course of revival. Any attempt to revive the Muslim Ummah cannot succeed without reconstructing the Islamic way of thinking among the Muslims. Without a clear picture of what the Islamic way of thinking consists of, reviving the Muslims would be doomed to failure and would repeat the same mistakes of past attempts which failed. Thus, fully comprehending these unique characteristics is vital to the revival process in order to keep the revival detached from the emotions, reactions, and factors that precipitated the decline. After addressing the factors and causes that resulted in corrupting the Islamic way of thinking, it is necessary to mention some distinguishing characteristics of the Islamic way of thinking. These characteristics can be deduced by examining the wahi, which defines the source of the Islamic culture, and by studying how the Sahabah dealt with the issues that faced them. Following are some of these characteristics:



1) The Existence of Truth and Falsehood as Absolute and Not Relative


The objective of the Islamic way of thinking is to reach the truth, which necessitates believing in the existence of truth and falsehood and in the correct and incorrect as absolute, and not relative, facts. The most distinguishing feature of this life is that it consists of facts and not illusions. Any objective and serious study or thought must acknowledge the undeniable fact that absolute realities exist; otherwise, such a study would degenerate into fanciful storytelling and speculation that cannot construct any sustainable concepts. With this in mind, any research, study, or thinking cannot be devoid of purpose or for entertainment; any such study or research would be in vain and would bear no productive concepts aside from superficial thoughts and abstract philosophies. Reaching the truth must be the sole motive behind any study or research, and once the truth is reached and is proven conclusively, Muslims must abide by it and adopt it as part of their thinking. No attention should be given to the opinions and traditions of the masses, or to any cost or benefit that may be associated with adhering to the truth. The truth must be accepted only based on its merits. Anyone who realizes the truth and failed to abide by it has willingly labeled himself a hypocrite and has cheated and deceived himself, which suffices to classify such a person as ignorant.


The existence of absolute truth is easily recognizable upon examining the manner in which the human being develops his thinking capacity. The human being from early childhood begins to sense his surroundings, and the images of these realities will be firmly entrenched in his brain. The human being at an early age feels the existence of these realities although he is unable to explain or define them. Upon repetitive feeling and sensation, the existence of these realities becomes definite and conclusive, and the notion that such realities are merely illusions quickly dissipates. The moon or mountain which the human being senses remains the same moon or mountain every time he senses them. If these realities were merely illusions that emanated from his imagination, then the human being, who has full control over his imagination, can alter the shape and nature of such illusions as he pleases. However, these realities exist regardless of his or anyone else's imagination, which means that the existence of these realities does not depend upon the imagination and is not a relative issue like the subject of one's imagination.


Furthermore, as the human being develops in his childhood, he develops the ability to connect some of his instincts and needs to these objects. Initially, such a connection during the early stages is merely instinctive or emotional, but not intellectual, and such connections exist even among the animals. For example, the infant would connect between his mother's aroma, her voice and the breast milk. These connections are not imaginary or illusory but are real outcomes of the interaction between his instincts and needs with the objects and realities surrounding him. Food and water always satisfy his need to eat and drink, and this satisfaction occurs in every human being and animal without exception.


With further maturation, the human child beings to comprehend these realities and initiates the process of classifying things by terms. Initially, this process occurs through imitation, starting with tangible things in his immediate vicinity such as his parents and bodily organs. He then begins the process of building relationships between these tangible realities, such as categorizing different realities on the basis of size or shape. In addition, the child starts to comprehend the attributes of certain actions, such as eating, walking, and sleeping. What must be noted is that the realities which the human being senses exist regardless of the terms he attributes to them. A mountain exists regardless of whether someone refers to it as a mountain or a small hill. Furthermore, the attributes that exist in objects are realities which the human being senses from his early childhood. Fire has the attribute of burning, and everyone observes this phenomenon without exception.


Alongside these processes, the child develops the ability to listen to the different sounds, which is the first linguistic skill that man develops and will later shape the development of his vocal system. All of these sounds and images will be stored as information, which will further reinforce the already conclusive existence of the realities that he has repeatedly observed throughout the years. The child starts communicating using very simple language usually composed of one or two phonetics. With time, his vocal system develops to the extent that he begins to utilize language and express his ideas in a spoken form, whereas before he would express himself primarily through emotions (laughing, crying, etc.) or bodily movements. Once the child acquires the ability to speak, he begins the process of questioning the realities surrounding him as well as their relationship to one another. This questioning proceeds naturally, and usually his parents assist him in answering these questions. The answers he receives will serve as information that will later serve as a basis for his thinking. In addition to questioning, the child also begins the process of issuing his own opinions and judgments. This thinking process will be crude and have numerous errors in its initial stages. By the time his reservoir of information increases and his senses become more refined, his thinking will become more sophisticated and accurate.


The human being, from the onset of his ability to rationalize and comprehend his surroundings, realizes that there is a stark difference between the existence of certain realities and their explanation. The existence of these realities is connected directly to the human being's senses and is, therefore, conclusive. Since the onset of the development of his ability to sense his surroundings, the human being has sensed the different realities, and what he senses is consistent time and again. However, the information which explains these realities may differ. Man begins to associate the information provided to him with the realities that he senses. If the information corresponds to the reality, then it will concentrate within him and naturally evolve into a concept, which he refers to as a reference for measuring other ideas and issues by. For example, the parent would tell their child that playing with electrical items is dangerous and could result in injury or death. They would also inform him that crying in a loud voice at night would attract ghosts which would kidnap him. Initially, the child would trust both statements because of the bond of trust and emotional link between him and his parents. However, the human being by his nature is curious, and this curiosity entices him to explore. With time, he will realize accuracy of the first statement and the inherent fallacy of the second by comparing both statements to the reality which he senses and to the many incidents and experiences. He will realize the correctness of the first statement either by news of others who were injured or killed by electrocution, or by directly experiencing an electric shock. When he begins contemplating the second statement and compares it to the reality, he will realize its falsehood through the accounts of many children, including himself, who would cry at night without ever being kidnapped by ghosts. As a result, he would consider the first statement as a concept and conviction that cannot be changed without the need to search for any further evidence to support it. As for the second statement, he would abandon it after realizing its falsehood.


Therefore, the truth is what matches with the reality, and because the reality is the same for everyone, then this correspondence is absolute and not relative. For example, the issue of whether Allah exists is not relative because either Allah exists or He does not. No one can claim that Allah exists and does not exist at the same time on the basis that some people deny His existence and others acknowledge it. The existence of the reality is something that people sense and not something that people create in their minds or imaginations. Thus, the reality exists in this life because of the fact that the reality itself exists and not because man wanted it to exist or imagined it to exist. The human being arrives at this conclusion from the moment that he begins to sense these realities.

Claiming that the realities which people sense are merely illusions and not the reality is a false claim which has no basis. Those who claim such a hallucination contradict their assertion simply by their conduct in daily life. If a human being were to doubt that everything surrounding him is real ­ including the food he eats, the items that he uses to carry out specific actions, and the words that he speaks and hears from others ­ he would be unable to live. Thus, the ideas and thoughts which either affirm the existence of a specific reality or attribute some descriptions to it are correct if the reality proves their correctness and false if the reality proves their falsehood. Saying that there exists a force called gravity which pushes matter to the center of the earth is correct and absolute because the reality proved its existence millions of times, and everyone observes the same phenomenon continuously and without exception.


Thus, the existence of truth is a conclusive issue that every human being realizes, and this realization is firmly entrenched. Once a human being realizes the truth, then he must abide by it because thinking is the most noble characteristic the human being possesses. Through this ability to think, the human being comprehends his surroundings, builds concepts that shape his personality and outlook, and develops plans and objectives to guide him through life. The human being can avoid many dangers, whether physical or intellectual, and overcome many obstacles that impede his progress through this ability. Furthermore, thinking renders the person legally accountable and responsible for his actions and their consequences. Without this capacity, the person would be considered insane or mentally dysfunctional and cannot be held legally accountable for his actions. Thus, the natural course for any human being to pursue is to proceed in this life according to his convictions, which he arrives at through the thinking process. The most debased of people are those who identify the truth and then avert themselves from it and fail to abide by it. Anyone who chooses this course of action defeats the very purpose of the most honorable characteristic that Allah has granted him, and he begins training himself in the fields of lying and hypocrisy. Stubbornness and argument based on falsehood become distinguishing features of his character.


While thinking is the most venerable characteristic that a human being has, the process itself is time and energy-consuming. Thus, the human being should not engage in thinking for entertainment like the Greek philosophers would do, nor should it be done for show as some people try to do when they argue an issue that is clearly incorrect. The Prophet (saaw) said, ''I guarantee a house in the Jannah(paradise) to the one who abandons (the miraah) even if he is correct.'' The word ''miraah'' in the hadith refers to the sophistic or pointless argument, or any argument initiated out of stubbornness and not for the purpose of reaching the truth in order to abide by it. Thus, it is mandatory upon all Muslims to abide by the truth and make reaching the truth the objective of any discussion, while ridding themselves of any loyalty aside from loyalty to the truth. The truth should serve as the frame of reference to measure things with. Muslims should never refer to anything ­ whether an individual, emotion, benefit, or institution as a frame of reference for assessing the truth. Anyone who does so has betrayed himself and has sold his personality and independence for a very cheap price. It is expected for a Muslim to consistently refer to the truth, and he should not insist on the falsehood regardless of the reasons or justifications for doing so.

2) Recognizing the Daleel, its Types, and its Domain

Human being encounter many issues in their daily lives, ranging from political and economic to intellectual and cultural. In order to proceed through life with its myriad of issues, the human being must develop or adopt certain opinions and thoughts related to these issues, and this adoption will serve as the basis for pursuing a specific course of action in addressing or resolving these issues. The most accurate and correct opinion or thought will doubtless lead to the most effective course of action in resolving an issue. And the accuracy or correctness of any thought or opinion will depend solely upon the strength of evidence that supports the thought or opinion. Therefore, no idea, opinion, rule or thought should be taken without its daleel (evidence). The process of adopting opinions or thoughts should not be done out of convenience or fascination (either with the opinion itself or with the one who carries it). No one should adopt any thought or opinion on the basis of personal benefit, emotion, reaction, or imitation. Ultimately, the daleel is the sole criterion for determining which opinion is correct.


The reason for placing the evidence as the sole basis for adopting any thought, action, opinion, or rule, is that Muslims will be held accountable for their actions when they face Allah (swt). This accountability will proceed on an individualistic basis in which everyone will be asked about only his or her actions. Parents, siblings, family, friends, shaykhs, leaders, mas'ools, government, country, or personal benefits and desires, will not avail any individual on the Day of Judgment. Allah (swt) will ask each person about their obedience to the wahi He sent. Therefore, awareness of the sharii rules along with their evidences is critical for the Muslims.


Furthermore, the behavior of the human being is based on the concepts and convictions which he carries. A concept, which the human being is convinced of to the extent that he will refer to it as a basis for his personality and outlook, cannot emerge unless it is built upon convincing evidence. Without any evidence to substantiate it, a concept will be reduced to superficial information which cannot define a consistent behavior. One should not adopt or defend any opinion, thought, or rule, without being convinced of its evidence (with the notable exeption of Taqleed(imitation), where the person is unable to evaluate the evidences or opinion). This is because the process of adoption renders whatever a person adopted an integral component of his mentality which will define his thinking. And anything that a person is not convinced with cannot define the thinking. Shallow thinking will be the inevitable outcome of adopting opinions without conviction.

One would say that a person who is part of a party or group is expected to adopt what the group adopts even if he is not convinced with the group's adoption. However, the evidence for adoption in this case is the same evidence which obligates the Muslim to establish and join a group, which is the ayah:


''And let there arise from among you an ummah that calls for Khayr (Islam), commands Al-Ma'ruf (good, what Islam ordains) and forbids Al-Munkar (evil, what Islam prohibits), and those are the ones who will attain success.'' [ 3:104]


The group cannot exist as a distinct entity without adopting a set of thoughts. It cannot even interact with the people without adoption. In order to maintain a pure and strong entity, which would translate into effective communication with the people, the group is expected to adopt its thoughts based on study, thought and research. Furthermore, the group or party should present its adopted opinions with its evidence to its members and to the Ummah, and leave the doors open for any discussion in order for the adoption to produce its fruits. Thus, the adoption in the group in no way should be associated with blindly following opinions or taking opinions without an evidence.


Types of Daleel


The daleel can be divided into two primary categories: The intellectual or rational daleel derived through the thinking process, and the textual daleel deduced from the wahi.


A). The Intellectual Daleel


The intellectual daleel, which is derived through the aql, is the reality that corresponds to an issue and proves its correctness as a result. This type of daleel is further subdivided into two types:


i). Evidence for fundamental thoughts


The fundamental thought, or Aqeedah, is the foundation which humanity refers to when measuring things. This thought serves as a frame of reference for the human being and defines his point of view and outlook towards life by resolving the essential questions that every human being must answer. The evidence for this type of thought is rational and must fully match with the reality. For example, believing in Allah (swt) as Unlimited and Eternal is a fundamental thought which is established by certain realities inherent in the universe, in life, and in the human being himself. The properties which all of these realities inherently possess would lead to the intellectual realization that they are created and not eternal. Similarly, believing in the Qur'an is derived through this process. As an Arabic text, the Qur'an must have a source. Examining the reality of the Qur'an and thinking about its possible sources would lead to the rational conclusion that the Qur'an must be the words of Allah (swt). And the prophethood of Muhammad (saaw) is realized through this conclusion.


The Qur'an addressed the sentiments of the human being while simultaneously directing the human being to think about the world surrounding him and to arrive at a conclusive belief. Through this intermixing of intellect and emotions, the Islamic Aqeedah addresses both aspects of the human being. Thus, the Islamic Aqeedah convinces the intellect of the human being and satisfies his nature. The core of the Aqeedah, which consists of believing in the Oneness of Allah, the Qur'an as the word of Allah, and in Muhammad as the final messenger, are established using this method.


Once the foundation of the Aqeedah8 is built, it serves as a basis for peripheral issues related to the Aqeedah, such as the previous prophets and books, the Day of Resurrection, Jannah (Paradise) and Jahannam (Hell-Fire), and the Attributes of Allah. These concepts can only be deduced after establishing the core of the Aqeedah because the evidence for such issues is the wahi itself, which cannot be realized without first establishing the existence of the wahi, the source of the wahi, and the human being's need for the wahi. Furthermore, these issues cannot be discussed rationally because they are beyond the senses of the human being, which is an essential component of the rational thinking process.

The intellectual process is also used to construct basic thoughts related to the various aspects of life, such as politics and economics, and these basic thoughts serve as a foundation for building an understanding of these various aspects of life. For example, building a political mentality requires establishing some basic notions about the influential nations in the world and their policies, interests, and relationship to other nations. These thoughts must be built by understanding the reality as it is and not through imagining the reality the way someone wants it to be. Thus, applying the intellectual process is required for all aspects of life except n the legislative aspect, which must rely on the wahi as its evidence, and the scientific fields, which utilize the scientific method of thinking.


ii). Evidence for detailed or specific thoughts


The frame of reference, which is defined by the fundamental thought or Aqeedah, serves as the lens through which the human being perceives all other issues. Moreover, this frame will shape the individual's mentality and thinking towards a specific direction. Consequently, each individual would look to issues and problems from a distinct angle. One cannot perceive detailed issues and thoughts in isolation because the detailed thoughts are built upon fundamental thoughts and do not exist in a vacuum. Given an issue such as inheritance, each individual will discuss this issue based upon his or her fundamental outlook upon life, which will result in various solutions to address the issue. Communists will not recognize inheritance because personal ownership does not exist according to their frame of reference. And even if the government allows some ownership, they would not permit the transfer of this ownership to future generations through inheritance. On the other hand, the Capitalists would recognize inheritance and give the owner full freedom to define his will and designate or deny his wealth to whomever he chooses without restriction. Thus, a person can apportion his inheritance to his wife and children, to some or none of his children, to his pets, or to an organization. While a Muslim would not use his own rational judgment to issue a decision because the problem of inheritance is a legal issue and not an intellectual one. Thus, the Muslim would refer to the Hukm Sharii which indicates, as a basic thought, that wealth belongs to Allah and that the individual's ownership is defined as Allah's permission given to such an individual to own a specific item and utilize it for his own benefit. Once the individual dies, this permission ceases to exist, and his wealth must be distributed in fixed percentages to specific categories of individuals defined by the Hukm Sharii. The owner of wealth cannot change this system of inheritance, nor can he distribute his inheritance during his lifetime.


The differences mentioned result from the distinct frames of reference which each human being refers an issue to, and each frame is defined by a unique fundamental thought. None of these individuals would discuss the issue of inheritance, or any other issue, in isolation and disconnected from his frame of reference. As a result, the differences that exist in the world today in terms of how humanity perceives its issues and problems stem from the differences that exist in the fundamental thought which human beings adopt.


The distinct views that may arise in the way human beings perceive their issues is evident in the way that each fundamental thought defines the society and consequently prescribes the formula for changing the society. The Communists would look to any change in the society as an inevitable outcome of evolution resulting from the inherent class struggle in the society. According to the Communist thought, the human being has no control over this process, and the extent of the individual's contribution is limited to accelerating this process by making the class conflicts more obvious in order to mobilize the lower classes to revolt against the elite class. The Capitalists would look to change in the society as the result of promoting new ideas through the media and educational system until the society would accommodate such ideas. At the same time, the system would leave the individual to decide where he stands regarding such ideas, as what occurred with the issue of homosexuality. In Islam, the process of change occurs first by examining the idea through study, research, and thought, in order to determine its merits. If the idea is incorrect, then it would be abandoned. However, if the idea is proven correct, then the Islamic State and the different parties existing within the Ummah would work to build the thinking of the masses according to the new thought through education and interaction. This process would result in building the concepts that individuals carry in addition to changing the public norms, which would in turn strengthen the concepts that the individuals possess and influence their behavior.


B). The Textual Daleel


The second major category of daleels is the textual daleel which is derived exclusively from the wahi. As with the intellectual evidence, the textual daleel is also subdivided into two types:


i). Daleels related to the Aqeedah


The Aqeedah is defined as the fundamental thought which provides a comprehensive explanation of the universe, man, and life, in addition to defining what lay before and after these realities and establishing the relationship between all of these aspects. While the core of the Aqeedah (which addresses the existence of Allah, the Qur'an as Allah's Speech, and Muhammad as a prophet) is established through intellectual daleels, all other issues related to the Aqeedah are based solely upon the textual daleel that emanates from the wahi. Because the textual evidence (the Qur'an), as well as its source (Allah), are proven intellectually, then the Muslim must believe in whatever the text mentions. Rejecting the text amounts to accusing Allah (swt) of giving false information, which directly contradicts the intellectually conclusive basis for the Aqeedah.


The daleel used in the Aqeedah is called Burhaan and carries a distinct significance. Burhaan is defined as the conclusive evidence which proves the existence of something in a conclusive manner. In this regard, Allah (swt) says:


''Say, 'Bring your Burhaan if you are telling the truth.'''
[ 27:64]


Any daleel used to prove any issue related to the Aqeedah must be conclusive in both its authenticity as well as its meaning because the Aqeedah cannot be established upon doubt or speculation. Only the Qur'an and the Hadith Mutawaatir carry this quality. Although the Khabr Ahad can be categorized as sound, its authenticity and correctness does not reach the level to render it a sufficient source of daleels for issues related to the Aqeedah. The evidence that the Aqeedah must be conclusive relates to the nature of the Aqeedah itself. The Aqeedah necessitates conclusiveness because the fundamental thought, which defines the outlook towards life and serves as the basis upon which all other thoughts and concepts are built, must be established upon conclusive evidences. If the fundamental thought is subject to doubt and uncertainty, then the very life of the human being will be mired with doubt and uncertainty in every aspect. Furthermore, the Qur'an condemned the Kuffar for establishing their Aqaid(plural of Aqeeda) based on speculation or doubt:

''They follow nothing but conjectures, and they do nothing but lie.'' [ 6:116]


''And they have no knowledge of it, they only speculate.''
[ 45:24]


''They follow only a guess, and verily, guessing is no substitute for the truth.'' [ 53:28]


In these and other ayahs, Allah (swt) attacked the Kuffar for establishing their fundamental thoughts through doubt, imitation, and emotions. It cannot be argued that this condemnation is specific to the Kuffar because the ayahs did not attack the Kuffar per se but also attacked the very concept of building the Aqeedah upon doubt. Therefore, the daleel for the Aqeedah must be conclusive to the extent that no other understanding can be derived from the evidences used. Only through this process can the Muslims guarantee the purity of their Aqeedah and safeguard themselves from delving into absurd discussions based on speculation. The intellectual fragmentation that occurred among Muslims in some issues related to the Aqeedah was due to several reasons, one of which was accepting inconclusive evidence as a basis for building the Aqeedah.

ii). The Daleel for the Hukm Sharii


In Usul ul-Fiqh, the daleel used for a Hukm Sharii is called ''Amaarah,'' which is defined as: An indication to show that a particular issue is most likely included in this item. The difference between the Burhaan and the Amarah is more clearly illustrated in the following example. When Allah (swt) says,


''We sent to Madian their brother Shuaib,'' [ 11:84]


the ayah proves the fact that Shuaib was sent to his people. Furthermore, the ayah also proves that Shuaib was a prophet. The fact that Shuaib was a prophet is not ''derived'' from the ayah; rather, the ayah mentions this fact conclusively without any room for doubt or error.


However, when Allah (swt) says regarding the wulu,


''And if you touch(lamastum) women,'' [ 5:6]


Imam Shafi used this ayah to show that touching a woman breaks the wulu. Shafi derived this hukm from the ayah based on his understanding and the extent of his knowledge. And according to Shafi, this understanding is correct with the possibility of being incorrect. Abu Hanifa uses the same ayah to indicate that lamastum refers to sexual intercourse. According to Abu Hanifa's understanding and the extent of his knowledge, the ayah indicates this hukm, and to Abu Hanifa, this understanding is correct with the possibility that it is wrong. The ayah did not establish the existence of something in a conclusive manner. Instead, each mujtahid would use the ayah to illustrate that the hukm which he understands related to the issue at hand is DERIVED from the ayah. As a result, each mujtahid considers his opinion as correct with the possibility of being wrong and considers the opinions of the other scholars related to the same issue as wrong with the possibility of being correct.


Because the Hukm Sharii differs from the Aqeedah, the Hukm Sharii does not necessarily require a conclusive evidence. The mujtahid searches for the daleel in order to understand what most likely seems correct regarding a particular issue. Therefore, the daleel can either be conclusive or non-conclusive. However, there are many rules which have a conclusive daleel, such as the number of prayers a day, the number of rakas in each prayer, the obligation of fasting during Ramadan, the permissibility of trading and prohibition of riba, theft and zina(illegal sex), the obligation of being ruled by Islam, and other issues. These issues lend no room for ijtihad because their corresponding evidences are conclusive.

The Qur'an, Hadith Mutawaatir, and Hadith Ahad can all be used as a source of daleels for the Hukm Sharii. The evidence which allows Muslims to rely on non-conclusive daleels as a source of akham shariyah is the fact that the Qur'an itself addressed the Muslims with both ayahs having conclusive meanings as well as those with non-conclusive meanings. Allah (swt) would not mention akham shariyah in non-conclusive ayahs if they could not be used as a source of daleels for rulings. Furthermore, the Prophet (saaw) accepted the Muslims changing the direction of the Qibla from Al-Quds to Mecca on the account of one individual. While the details of this issue are mentioned in books of Usul ul-Fiqh and are beyond the scope of this paper, the general outlook towards the daleel is essential to building the Islamic way of thinking in the correct manner.


In summary, Muslims should not adopt any thought, opinion, or rule without an evidence. The default scenario is that every Muslim must be a mujtahid(scholar). But because such a level is beyond the capacity of many individuals to achieve, the taqleed is permissible in issues related to Ahkam Shariyah. However, the permissibility of taqleed(imitation) should not serve as a passport for ignorance. Muslims must search and study in order to elevate their knowledge, even though they may not possess the ability to perform ijtihad. While attaining the ability to perform ijtihad may not be achievable to many individuals, having the ability to research the opinions of mujtahids, understanding how they arrived at their opinions, and comprehending the soundness of the daleels they used, are certainly within the reach of many Muslims.


3) Recognizing the Domain of the Wahi


Muslims must believe in the wahi that Allah (swt) sent to Muhammad (saaw). The immediate question that arises is: What is the wahi and what is its domain? The wahi is defined as the address of Allah (swt) to the people, which includes the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The Qur'an is wahi because it is the Speech of Allah in both its words and meaning, while the Sunnah is wahi because the Qur'an conclusively established that whatever Muhammad (saaw) delivered is wahi. Allah (swt) mentions this fact in several ayahs in the Qur'an, such as the following ayah:


''He does not speak out of his whims, but rather it is wahi.''
[ 53:4]


The letter ''maa'' in the ayah means ''whatsoever,'' which is a letter in Arabic used to denote generalization. Thus, the ayah indicates that everything that Muhammad (saaw) spoke related to the Deen is wahi. In addition, Allah (swt) says:

''Say (Muhammad), 'I am only a man like you. It has been revealed to me that your Ilah is One Ilah''' [ 18:110]


''Say (Muhammad), 'I warn you only by the wahi''' [ 21:45]

''And whatever the Messenger gives you, take it, and whatever he forbids you from, abstain (from it).'' [ 59:7]


The wahi, which includes the Qur'an and Sunnah, can be divided into two main categories. The first type addresses the Aqeedah and provides information related to the Ghaib(unseen) and about past or future events, such as the description of Paradise, information describing the angels and jinn, and information about some previous prophets. Muslims must believe in this information as conclusive. The other category of wahi contains orders for carrying out specific actions, which are further subdivided into the five known categories of the Hukm Sharii. This type of wahi also includes rules related to objects because prohibiting specific objects implicitly means to prohibit actions connected to those objects. For example, the prohibition of wine includes prohibiting its consumption, production, and trade. The position of the Muslim regarding the rules is to comply with every rule in its full capacity.


Therefore, the wahi covers the Aqeedah and related issues such as information about past or future events, in addition to dealing with actions which govern the behavior and conduct of human beings. The wahi does not include all other aspects of the life affairs, such as thoughts related to geography, astronomy, physics, history, medicine, and chemistry. Similarly, the wahi does discuss thoughts which describe the physical or material parameters of a specific reality, aside from mentioning its relationship to the Creator. Such issues can be approached either intellectually or scientifically depending upon the nature of each issue.


Allah (swt) directed the Muslims to the fact that such issues lay within the scope of the intellect but not within the domain of the wahi. This fact is explicated in several ayahs:


''They ask you (Muhammad) about the new moons. Say, 'They are signs to mark fixed periods of time for mankind and for pilgrimage.''' [ 2:189]

''Say, 'Behold all that is in the heavens and the earth,' but neither Ayat (proof, evidence, lessons, etc.) nor warners benefit those who refuse to believe.'' [ 10:101]

''And We have appointed the night and the day as two signs (of Ours). Then, We have extinguished the sign of the night while We have made the sign of day bright, that you may seek bounty from your Lord, and that you may know the number of years and the reckoning.'' [ 17:12]


''Say, 'Travel in the land and see how (Allah) originated creation''' [ 29:20]

''Allah. It is He Who has subjected to you the sea, so that ships may sail through it by His Command, and that you may seek of His Bounty, and that you may be thankful; and (He) has subjected to you all that is in the heavens and all that is in the earth.'' [ 45:12-13]


''He it is Who has made the earth subservient to you, so walk in the path thereof and eat of His Provision'' [ 67:15]


These and other ayahs illustrate that Allah (swt) created everything in the universe and in the earth for the disposal of the human being, and Allah (swt) assigned the human being the duty of researching, exploring, and utilizing these objects for his benefit. Although the Qur'an did mention some natural phenomena, such as the rain, the movement of celestial bodies, and the developmental stages of the fetus, these phenomena were mentioned to illustrate the signs of Allah as an indication to His Greatness. The Qur'an specifically discussed specific phenomena for the human being to appreciate Allah's Might and to provoke the human being to think about his surroundings and conclude that Allah (swt) exists. Furthermore, these phenomena were mentioned to prompt the human being to realize that the entire system of life must be set by the same Creator who set all the other systems in place. The Qur'an was not meant to be a book of physics or chemistry, or an encyclopedia of human anatomy. The scope of such fields of knowledge is science, and Islam gave the human mind the authority to search and discover whatever Allah (swt) Created in the universe for the disposal of the human being. The Qur'an is a book of guidance, as Allah (swt) says:

''This is the Book (Qur'an), in which there is no doubt, a guidance to those who are Al-Muttaqun.'' [ 2:2]

As a book of guidance, the Qur'an mentions regulations and rules to organize the human life as well as mentioning the consequences of abiding by these laws from the perspective of reward and punishment. Attempting to refer to the Qur'an as a scientific or technological manual defeats its purpose and diverts the attention of the people from the real scope of the Qur'an. What exists nowadays are Muslims who would refer to the Qur'an in order to prove a scientific theory or study while simultaneously referring to their own interests rather than the Qur'an as a reference for conducting their life affairs. If Allah (swt) revealed the Qur'an to be a book of science and technology, then the Sahabah should be the most scientifically and technologically advanced people ever to inhabit the earth. After all, the Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet (saaw) while the Sahabah were living with him, and they adopted the tafseer directly from the Prophet (saaw). Their level of understanding in Islam surpassed all other generations of Muslims, to the extent that their ijma(consensus) in a Sharii issue is considered a source of legislation agreed upon by all the scholars. However, it is clearly evident to all human beings that the generation of the Sahabah were far less advanced in their technological and scientific knowledge than the generations living today. Furthermore, it was not reported or documented that the Sahabah ever conducted scientific research based on the Qur'an because they realized that the scope of the wahi did not include science and technology.


As previously mentioned, the wahi covers the Aqeedah and the intellectual aspect of the human being while simultaneously addressing the actions that man carries. Furthermore, the Qur'an addressed the rules governing the actions in a unique manner to ensure that these rules would always remain applicable despite changes in science and technology. The Qur'an did not address the actions from the perspective of being actions done by specific individuals at a specific time and place. Rather, the Qur'an addressed a particular action from the perspective of whether or not the action itself is allowed. Islam prohibits theft, whether the theft occurred in the 6th century or in the 21st century. Similarly, Islam permits trade, whether this trade occurs in the past, present, or future. The Ahkam Shariyah encompassed all of man's actions. No action exists without a corresponding Hukm Sharii, and to this extent Allah (swt) says:

''And We have sent down to you the Book (the Qur'an) as an exposition of everything.'' [ 16:89]

''This day, I have perfected your Deen for you, completed My Favor upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your Deen.'' [ 5:3]


However, Islam did not burden the human being, which is why the sphere of permissible things is the largest. For example, the Sharii rule states that objects are permissible unless a specific text exists to prove otherwise. Thus, everything is allowed, and its utilization is permissible, with the exception of a few items such as Khamr(wine) and the flesh of the deceased animal. Furthermore, this concept permits the utilization of all types of minerals, plants, and animals, unless a text exists prohibiting the consumption of a specific item. Even in the case of prohibiting the consumption of a specific animal, the wahi permits the utilization of the same animals for other purposes, such as training a dog to guard property or to hunt. Also included in this sphere are the natural actions of the human being, such as looking, seeing, smelling, and walking. Islam permitted all such actions unless it is connected to something haram, such as walking to a bar or looking at the aura of a man or woman.


In addition, Islam permitted Muslims to exploit anything in the universe for industry, medicine, agriculture, communication, and other aspects of civilization. It was reported in a hadith that some people came to the Prophet (saaw) about pollinating date trees. The Prophet (saaw) suggested to them that they should abandon the manual method since the wind may pollinate them. During the same season, the trees did not bear fruit. When the same people came to the Prophet (saaw) and explained this incident to him, he said, ''You know better when it comes to your life affairs.''


Therefore, all aspects of agriculture, industry, medicine, technology, communication, and mining, are within the sphere of the permissible and can be taken from any nation. When the Hukm Sharii addresses the actions, it does not address the physical means involved in performing the action because the means are objects which carry the original rule of permissibility. When Islam permitted traveling and made it a valid excuse to shorten the prayer, it did not restrict the travel to a specific mode. Therefore, the same rules apply to traveling by camel, plane, or automobile. The speed of the mode of transportation, and hence the length of time it takes for different modes to cover the required distance for shortening the prayers, is not an issue. When Islam ordered the Muslim Ummah to prepare, the issue is whether the Muslims have prepared themselves to the level where they can equal or surpass the other nations in might and power, regardless of whether this entails preparing camels and horses or building fighter planes and tanks. Islam does not place restrictions on the material means and tools connected to any action, which is why the Prophet (saaw) used a new weapon to fight one of the tribes. Furthermore, the Prophet (saaw) sent Sahabah to learn sword manufacturing in Yemen and incorporated a technique used by the Persians to defend Medina.


Due to the application of Islam, Muslims advanced at an extraordinarily rapid rate. The bedouins who used to fight using the sword and arrow, and who moved by camels and horses, are the same bedouins who faced the Roman navy thirteen years after the death of the Prophet (saaw). The newly emerging Muslim Ummah was able to defeat the Roman navy in the Battle of That-ul-Sawari during the days of 'Uthman, and the Mediterranean became under the control of the Muslims since then. Therefore, claiming that Islam is a backward deen which asks people to revert to the Middle Ages is an incorrect and absurd claim. The Islamic rules are not connected to the ways and means that human being employ in carrying out their actions but rather to the actions themselves. Humanity always develops in their ways and means, but the nature of the actions remain the same. Theft remains theft, regardless of the time or place it occurred. Zina refers to the action of having sexual relations outside of marriage, whether this illegal relationship occurred in a cave, in a city, or on the moon. Therefore, the system which addressed man's actions in the past is capable of addressing the same actions in the present and in the future. And the discovery of new ways and means has no bearing on the applicability of the system because ways, means, tools, and scientific advancement are not addressed by the system. Through this unique method of addressing the actions, Islam ensures that its rules and systems governing the actions of human beings remain applicable.


Once the scope of the wahi is realized and understood, Muslims can recognize the fine line that separates issues belonging to the wahi from issues that are reserved for the human mind. Muslims in the past recognized this boundary and maintained it. Only when this fine distinction was blurred did Muslims begin to recede.

4) Understanding the Human Mind and Its Limits


It was mentioned previously that thinking is a process of transmitting the comprehensible reality to the human brain through the senses and then explaining the reality using the previous information related to it. Developing a clearer understanding of the human mind and its inherent limitations requires a scrutiny of the various components which comprise the mind:

i). The Reality


The reality is defined as anything within the scope and capacity of the human senses to detect. Furthermore, the reality is the object which the human being thinks about before issuing a judgment or conclusion regarding it. The reality could be tangible, such as an atom, planet, or chemical, or it could be an idea or concept expressed not in terms of physical criteria but as words, formulas, and equations. As previously mentioned, the reality can be sensed by the human being either directly or indirectly. In either case, a reality must exist which the human being can think about, and this reality must be accessible to one or more of the senses. Anything